- White bread (1 pound): $1.33 ($1.41 in todays dollars) - A small - Fresh grocery milk (1 gallon): $3.80 ($4.59 in todays dollars). - Sliced bacon (1 pound): $1.77 ($3.72 in todays dollars) - Fresh delivered milk (1/2 gallon): $0.50 ($4.63 in todays dollars). - Sliced bacon (1 pound): $0.37 ($6.34 in todays dollars) - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $0.55 ($8.13 in todays dollars) Employment continued to grow, with 2 million adults1.4 million of which were womenjoining the workforce. WebThe second problem is that of different margins in different districts. - Round steak (1 pound): $2.95 ($7.96 in todays dollars) But the attacks of 9/11 further exacerbated the effects of the recession, closing the stock markets for several days. - White bread (1 pound): $0.67 ($1.41 in todays dollars) - White bread (1 pound): $1.30 ($1.32 in todays dollars) You may also like: 100 lowest-paying jobs in America, - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $0.57 ($5.01 in todays dollars) - White bread (1 pound): $0.08 ($1.49 in todays dollars) - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $0.33 ($6.41 in todays dollars) By 2005, the average American home possessed 19.3 bank cards that they used for banking, borrowing and shopping. - White bread (1 pound): $0.16 ($1.57 in todays dollars) The passage of the GI Bill of Rights further opened up opportunities for veterans, providing them money to attend college, or buy homes or farmland. - Fresh delivered milk (1/2 gallon): $0.51 ($4.59 in todays dollars). The war meant that unemployment had virtually disappeared in the United States, as women, minorities, and teenagers joined the labor force in droves, bringing the unemployment rate to 1.2%. as well as image rights, data visualizations, forward planning tools, - Round steak (1 pound): $1.08 ($8.92 in todays dollars) - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $1.40 ($1.43 in todays dollars) The year 1950 ushered in the era known as the Golden Age of American capitalism, two decades that saw a huge increase in the middle class, with blue-collar workers purchasing homes and buying appliances and cars with their rising wages. - Fresh delivered milk (1/2 gallon): $0.26 ($4.45 in todays dollars). - White bread (1 pound): $0.75 ($1.39 in todays dollars) The year started off with strong consumer spending, with car sales historically high. - Fresh delivered milk (1/2 gallon): $0.42 ($4.59 in todays dollars). The economy experienced a marked slowdown, with economic growth and job growth both decreasing and the housing boom coming to an end. - White bread (1 pound): $0.25 ($1.61 in todays dollars) - Fresh grocery milk (1/2 gallon): $1.12 ($3.21 in todays dollars). - Fresh grocery milk (1/2 gallon): $1.56 ($2.59 in todays dollars). WebEvery month a team of specialists collects around 180,000 separate prices of over 700 items covering everything a typical family might buy, such as milk, bread and bananas. - Round steak (1 pound): $2.90 ($7.58 in todays dollars) - Potatoes (10 pounds): $0.63 ($5.63 in todays dollars) And families were continuing to see more money coming in, with the average median family income at $6,900. The American economy was slowly getting back on track, though consumers and businesses remained cautious as the prior recession lingered in their minds. - Sliced bacon (1 pound): $1.94 ($5.07 in todays dollars) With hundreds of thousands of soldiers coming back from the war, Congress passed the Employment Act of 1946, which stated it was the responsibility of the government to maintain a high employment level of labor and price stability. In 2014, the typical American household spent $36,800, however the amount of money they were bringing in stayed relatively the same. - White bread (1 pound): $0.09 ($1.35 in todays dollars) - Sliced bacon (1 pound): $3.20 ($4.53 in todays dollars) - Round steak (1 pound): $3.21 ($5.48 in todays dollars) Stacker took a look at historic average pricing data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) Consumer Price Index to find what a sample basket of food cost from 1930 to 2020, including prices for fresh eggs, white bread, sliced bacon, round steak, potatoes, and milk. Inflation-adjusted prices are also included, to see how prices really compare to today. The stock market was depressed and interest rates rose. - Potatoes (10 pounds): $0.21 ($3.88 in todays dollars) - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $0.59 ($5.71 in todays dollars) - Round steak (1 pound): $0.39 ($6.91 in todays dollars) - Sliced bacon (1 pound): $0.37 ($6.83 in todays dollars) Minimum wage was also increased to $2.10, - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $0.84 ($3.84 in todays dollars) Despite gains in spending and output, the job market remained weak, with sluggish job creation and hiring. - Fresh delivered milk (1/2 gallon): $0.48 ($4.71 in todays dollars). - White bread (1 pound): $0.76 ($1.33 in todays dollars) - White bread (1 pound): $1.04 ($1.39 in todays dollars) I bought my first car,a 1947 Standard - White bread (1 pound): $0.08 ($1.50 in todays dollars) In an effort to bring the economy back from the recession, President Eisenhower increased government spending on construction projects and put more money into the nations up-and-coming interstate system. - Round steak (1 pound): $1.11 ($8.92 in todays dollars) - Sliced bacon (1 pound): $5.77 ($6.13 in todays dollars) WebEnd October President of the United States Franklin D. Roosevelt approves US$ 1bn in Lend-Lease aid to Britain. - Potatoes (10 pounds): $0.76 ($7.46 in todays dollars) You may also like: How U.S. labor productivity has changed since 1950. How CEO pay compares with worker pay at 50 famous companies, How U.S. labor productivity has changed since 1950, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/?ref=chooser-v1. It seems like the good old days, were really affordable when it comes to house buying with the best year to buy in 1945, with an average property price of - White bread (1 pound): $0.08 ($1.55 in todays dollars) - Potatoes (10 pounds): $0.63 ($5.43 in todays dollars) Keep reading to discover how much basic goods cost in the year you were born and how world events have affected consumer spending habits. [1] Prices are in pounds, shillings and pence. High interest rates and a decrease in buying power meant less spending, with people putting off buying big-ticket items such as cars and housing. - Sliced bacon (1 pound): $1.92 ($3.56 in todays dollars) - Round steak (1 pound): $1.09 ($10.91 in todays dollars) - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $0.99 ($1.89 in todays dollars) 852. - Sliced bacon (1 pound): $0.81 ($6.06 in todays dollars) - Sliced bacon (1 pound): $5.61 ($5.71 in todays dollars) - Fresh delivered milk (1/2 gallon): $0.63 ($4.47 in todays dollars). - Sliced bacon (1 pound): $5.45 ($5.98 in todays dollars) - Fresh delivered milk (1/2 gallon): $0.66 ($4.24 in todays dollars). - White bread (1 pound): $0.18 ($1.75 in todays dollars) All indicators continued to show a healthy, growing economy, with unemployment at 4.9% and inflation at around 3%. - Round steak (1 pound): $3.24 ($4.90 in todays dollars) - Sliced bacon (1 pound): $4.11 ($4.91 in todays dollars) *In 1980, the BLS transitioned to tracking the price of one pound of potatoes instead of 10 pounds. - Round steak (1 pound): $0.43 ($6.70 in todays dollars) - Round steak (1 pound): $0.36 ($6.69 in todays dollars) - Black Cat cigarettes, 10 for 6d (2p).- Reckitt's Bath Cubes, 2d (1p) each. - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $0.57 ($4.96 in todays dollars) - White bread (1 pound): $1.00 ($1.41 in todays dollars) - Potatoes (1 pound): $0.30 ($0.56 in todays dollars) The agency had a special focus on advancing the economic status of African Americans, providing them job training opportunities and advocating for their inclusion in social safety net programs. - White bread (1 pound): $1.41 ($1.58 in todays dollars) - Fresh grocery milk (1/2 gallon): $1.16 ($2.55 in todays dollars). During 1977, consumer spending grew unusually fast, with people spending only a marginal amount of their income. - White bread (1 pound): $0.61 ($1.34 in todays dollars) Administration: private business, 545; costs, 546; demand, 547; foreign Meanwhile, the private-sector economy flourished, with private investments rising 156%. - Potatoes (10 pounds): $1.66 ($8.76 in todays dollars) President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed legislation to construct an interstate highway system in 1956, leading to the creation of thousands of construction jobs as well as an increase in the number of roadside businesses. You may also like: Jobs that might not exist in 50 years, - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $0.45 ($7.01 in todays dollars) - Round steak (1 pound): $0.94 ($10.15 in todays dollars) The price of goods also increased 1.5%. Income also ticked upward, with the median family income increasing to $23,260. - Potatoes (10 pounds): $0.25 ($4.68 in todays dollars) Another basic good, gasoline was selling for .15 per gallon. Consumer Price Inflation recorded message (available after 8am on release day): +44 800 0113703. - Sliced bacon (1 pound): $1.46 ($4.61 in todays dollars) That led to a banking crisis as borrowers defaulted on their loans, subsequently causing the huge financial institutions to collapse and take the stock market with them. - Potatoes (1 pound): $0.45 ($0.62 in todays dollars) - Round steak (1 pound): $1.76 ($7.56 in todays dollars) - Fresh grocery milk (1/2 gallon): $1.12 ($3.02 in todays dollars). While the future looked bright, the Vietnam War and President Johnsons Great Society programsaimed at addressing poverty through measures like welfare, housing and community developmentsoon saw federal spending and debt increase significantly. The Bureau of Labor Statistics revised the CPI in 1978 and was not able to release average retail food prices from July 1978 through December 1979. - White bread (1 pound): $0.21 ($1.76 in todays dollars) - Potatoes (10 pounds): $0.46 ($4.97 in todays dollars) - Potatoes (1 pound): $0.68 ($0.79 in todays dollars) - Sliced bacon (1 pound): $1.76 ($8.51 in todays dollars) The annual average unemployment rate nationwide remained low at 3.9%. - White bread (1 pound): $0.22 ($1.87 in todays dollars) - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $0.72 ($7.78 in todays dollars) The legislation would go on to create 9.3 million jobs. - Potatoes (1 pound): $0.67 ($0.75 in todays dollars) This was in large part due to rising technology, which was not only making consumers lives easier but making business more efficient. Nixon also proposed repealing excise taxes on cars, a move that not only resulted in making cars more affordable, but resulted in more jobs in the auto industry. - Fresh grocery milk (1 gallon): $3.04 ($3.09 in todays dollars). - White bread (1 pound): $0.07 ($1.33 in todays dollars) - White bread (1 pound): $0.19 ($1.76 in todays dollars) - Fresh grocery milk (1 gallon): $3.42 ($3.76 in todays dollars). - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $0.59 ($7.88 in todays dollars) With the implementation of the Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement, trade increased between the two countries at a rapid clip. - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $0.60 ($4.82 in todays dollars) In April, House Republicans also passed a bill that cut taxes over the course of five years, as well as provided tax credits for families and reduced the capital gains tax. - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $1.47 ($1.56 in todays dollars) The median household income was $53,657, not statistically different from that of 2013. How much did bread cost in the 1940s? Research conducted by financial firm Provident compares prices for food items, such as fish and chips, teabags and Mars Bars, over 25 years for its memory-lane quiz Back In The Day. The economy grew at a rate of over 5%. - Round steak (1 pound): $0.34 ($6.37 in todays dollars) The effects of the 1981 tax cuts continued to be felt, with strong consumer and business spending. and more. By this time, 6 million women had also entered the workforce, giving them greater economic independence. - Fresh delivered milk (1/2 gallon): $0.61 ($4.56 in todays dollars). - Potatoes (10 pounds): $0.55 ($6.01 in todays dollars) You may also like: Best value colleges in every state, - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $1.01 ($2.01 in todays dollars) - White bread (1 pound): $0.08 ($1.52 in todays dollars) - Fresh grocery milk (1/2 gallon): $1.37 ($2.62 in todays dollars). Congress approved tax cuts proposed by President Kennedy before his assasination, putting more money back into the pockets of American consumers. - White bread (1 pound): $0.09 ($1.66 in todays dollars) Public policies assisted returning veterans in securing jobs, purchasing homes and starting families; however, many minorities still faced challenges in partaking in these opportunities. - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $0.54 ($4.53 in todays dollars) The food at home price index, which includes the cost of items such as cereal, meats, fruits and vegetables, and nonalcoholic beverages, increased 4.3% from March 2020 to June 2020, after rising only 1.1% over the previous 12 months. - Potatoes (10 pounds): $0.86 ($13.40 in todays dollars) - Fresh grocery milk (1 gallon): $2.84 ($4.44 in todays dollars). WebWhat it cost - 1940 Rowntree's Cocoa, 6d (2p) per lb. - Potatoes (10 pounds): $0.32 ($5.99 in todays dollars) With more women in the workplace came a demand for a recognition of rights, with the National Organization of Women calling for an executive order to ban discrimination in federal employment. - Sliced bacon (1 pound): $1.88 ($4.14 in todays dollars) Telephone : Consumer Price Inflation Enquiries: +44 1633 456900. - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $1.04 ($1.66 in todays dollars) - Sliced bacon (1 pound): $1.33 ($7.80 in todays dollars) In the 1950s we spent a third of our income on food shopping, but in 1974 this had gone down to 24%. - Sliced bacon (1 pound): $1.32 ($6.97 in todays dollars) Due to restrictions on spending due to the war effort, Americans were also saving an average of 21% of their disposable income. Americans were on the move and car sales were there to prove it. - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $0.37 ($6.83 in todays dollars) The stock market crashed again, with businesses blaming New Deal initiatives and the government blaming a lack of investment on the part of the businesses. - White bread (1 pound): $0.17 ($1.64 in todays dollars) - Fresh delivered milk (1/2 gallon): $0.51 ($4.56 in todays dollars). - White bread (1 pound): $0.69 ($1.37 in todays dollars) - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $0.70 ($8.17 in todays dollars) And while Americans were making more than before, they were also borrowing more, carrying large debts for cars and education. - Sliced bacon (1 pound): $3.61 ($4.38 in todays dollars) - Sliced bacon (1 pound): $0.96 ($5.98 in todays dollars) In 2012, consumer spending slowly expanded, with unemployment hovering at around 8%. - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $0.87 ($2.35 in todays dollars) - Sliced bacon (1 pound): $0.70 ($6.03 in todays dollars) Note that this describes the situation still current Mainly for this reason, estimates of total dead in World War II vary anywhere from 35,000,000 to 60,000,000a statistical difference of no small import. - Round steak (1 pound): $1.48 ($9.22 in todays dollars) - Sliced bacon (1 pound): $0.41 ($7.79 in todays dollars) - Potatoes (1 pound): $0.53 ($0.68 in todays dollars) - Round steak (1 pound): $0.35 ($6.46 in todays dollars) With more money in hand thanks to the President George W. Bushs tax cut package, consumers began spending, helping to recharge the economy. However, unemployment crept up to 5.8%. Named after its creator, Secretary of State George C. Marshall, the Marshall Plan proposed offering European nations more than $15 billion in aid to rebuild after the war. You may also like: The top women CEOs in America, - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $0.91 ($1.38 in todays dollars) You may also like: The cost of a beer the year you turned 21, - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $0.60 ($6.48 in todays dollars) Inflation and interest rates also fell. - Round steak (1 pound): $6.15 ($6.75 in todays dollars) - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $0.53 ($3.96 in todays dollars) - Fresh delivered milk (1/2 gallon): $0.46 ($4.47 in todays dollars). - White bread (1 pound): $0.87 ($1.41 in todays dollars) - Round steak (1 pound): $1.80 ($9.50 in todays dollars) The year began with 77.2 million Americans employed and unemployment at 3.3%, the lowest it had been since 1963. Wages and salaries went up only slightly, with the minimum wage remaining at $5.15 per hour. - Fresh delivered milk (1/2 gallon): $0.23 ($4.37 in todays dollars). - Round steak (1 pound): $1.99 ($7.94 in todays dollars) However, they saw some relief in the form of a tax cut, proposed by President Gerald Ford and approved by Congress in March. - Sliced bacon (1 pound): $2.05 ($5.53 in todays dollars) - Sliced bacon (1 pound): $0.84 ($6.55 in todays dollars) - Fresh grocery milk (1 gallon): $2.76 ($3.90 in todays dollars). - Round steak (1 pound): $1.27 ($9.01 in todays dollars) And though prices increased 6% from the year before, the median family income also increased 9%, giving workers about $450 more in purchasing power. Millions of Americans received a stimulus check in the summer, ranging from $300 to $600, with the federal government hoping the money would be spent to stimulate an economy undergoing a mild recession brought on by the dot-com bubble burst. - Potatoes (10 pounds): $0.47 ($6.95 in todays dollars) - Fresh delivered milk (1/2 gallon): $0.46 ($4.60 in todays dollars). - Sliced bacon (1 pound): $5.42 ($5.88 in todays dollars) - Fresh grocery milk (1 gallon): $3.28. - Potatoes (1 pound): $0.21 ($0.57 in todays dollars) - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $1.84 ($2.09 in todays dollars) - Potatoes (10 pounds): $0.56 ($5.44 in todays dollars) Coming off a stock market crash the previous year, the nation was plagued by economic peril. - White bread (1 pound): $0.35 ($1.60 in todays dollars) - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $0.35 ($5.99 in todays dollars) The recession which had begun in 1990 continued through March of 1991. - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $1.31 ($1.69 in todays dollars) - Fresh grocery milk (1/2 gallon): $1.13 ($2.73 in todays dollars). - Fresh delivered milk (1/2 gallon): $0.48 ($4.59 in todays dollars). - Potatoes (1 pound): $0.58 ($0.69 in todays dollars) You may also like: 15 charities where you can see your direct impact, - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $0.84 ($2.65 in todays dollars) - Sliced bacon (1 pound): $0.64 ($6.91 in todays dollars) Quiz: Can you guess which company owns these brands? - White bread (1 pound): $0.20 ($1.76 in todays dollars) With the implementation of the North American Free Trade Agreement, exports grew. The tax cuts would go on to have long-term benefits. - Sliced bacon (1 pound): $4.56 ($5.17 in todays dollars) The plan not only encouraged European countries to work together, but it bolstered the American economy, with goods being purchased from the United States and shipped on American merchant vehicles. - Round steak (1 pound): $0.76 ($8.87 in todays dollars) to dollars and cents (from Decimal currency, 1965, ABS) Pence Whole cents 1 1 2 2 3 2 4 3 5 4 The countries traded skis, whiskey, fur and computers, among other goods. But this isnt the first time the American economy has been shattered by a crisis. Compares the years 1914-23 with 1939-44. - Round steak (1 pound): $0.26 ($5.21 in todays dollars) - Sliced bacon (1 pound): $0.43 ($6.47 in todays dollars) - Round steak (1 pound): $0.91 ($9.83 in todays dollars) A family of four with two earners and two children brought in $53,615 after taxes, adjusted for inflation, and spent more than $12,000 on housing, $6,000 on food, and $1,444 on entertainment. In 1965, the nations automobile industry reached its peak, with companies like Chevrolet, Ford, and Pontiac producing more than 11 million new cars, trucks, and buses. - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $0.70 ($7.66 in todays dollars) They were also heading to the stores, with strong retail sales reported throughout the year. - Fresh grocery milk (1 gallon): $2.78 ($4.20 in todays dollars). - White bread (1 pound): $0.24 ($1.61 in todays dollars) The economy was a central tenant for the newly elected President Reagen, who implemented a series of tax cuts in the hopes of encouraging consumers to spend more, thereby stimulating business growth and hiring. - Potatoes (10 pounds): $0.34 ($5.43 in todays dollars) The workforce grew by 1.6 million people in 1967, with more than 66% of these additional workers being women. Wisconsin Historical Society // Getty Images, State Library of New South Wales // Flickr, SMU Libraries Digital Collections // Flickr, U.S. National Archives and Records Administration // Wikimedia Commons, U.S. National Archives and Records Administration // Wikimdia Commons, OSU Special Collections & Archives // Wikimedia Commons, The Library of Virginia // Wikimedia Commons, State Library and Archives of Florida // Wikimedia Commons, U.S. Department of Agriculture // Wikimedia Commons, State Archives of North Carolina // Wikimedia Commons, Countries with the most oil and who they're selling it to. - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $1.68 ($1.82 in todays dollars) - Sliced bacon (1 pound): $5.52 - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $0.78 ($4.12 in todays dollars) 1930. WebRich Mans Dinner: $16.30 for Martini Cocktail, Lynnhaven Oysters, Celery, Stuffed Olives, Green Turtle Soup, Terrapin, Champagne, Canvasback Duck, Mushrooms in Cream, French Asparagus, French Peas, Squash, Appolinaris, Tutti Frutti Ice Cream, Assorted Cakes, Cordial, Camembert Cheese, and Caf Ture. - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $1.34 ($1.85 in todays dollars) - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $0.86 ($1.51 in todays dollars) - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $1.22 ($1.63 in todays dollars) - Fresh grocery milk (1 gallon): $3.26 ($3.89 in todays dollars). Coming into a new year with a modest recession, newly inaugurated President John F. Kennedy gave the economy a boost with stimulus spending that included tax cuts and the expansion of unemployment and Social Security benefits. - Round steak (1 pound): $0.41 ($5.93 in todays dollars) - Round steak (1 pound): $3.40 ($6.12 in todays dollars) - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $0.57 ($5.28 in todays dollars) - Potatoes (10 pounds): $0.49 ($7.09 in todays dollars) - White bread (1 pound): $0.51 ($1.61 in todays dollars) Government policies that had raised interest rates had also resulted in higher consumer prices, leading to a decline in spending. - Sliced bacon (1 pound): $5.29 ($5.91 in todays dollars) - Potatoes (1 pound): $0.33 ($0.63 in todays dollars) - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $1.00 ($2.10 in todays dollars) - Fresh delivered milk (1/2 gallon): $0.35 ($4.67 in todays dollars). - Sliced bacon (1 pound): $1.94 ($4.69 in todays dollars) - Potatoes (1 pound): $0.77 ($0.78 in todays dollars) Heres a snapshot of life and pop culture in 1963. Can you live on minimum wage in your state? - Potatoes (10 pounds): $1.34 ($6.48 in todays dollars) - White bread (1 pound): $1.00 ($1.47 in todays dollars) - White bread (1 pound): $0.35 ($1.85 in todays dollars) - Round steak (1 pound): $5.71 ($5.92 in todays dollars) When World War II ended in September 1945, the United States emerged economically stronger than any other country in the world. For 1944 and 1945, income amounts above $200,000 about $3.3 million in today's dollars were taxed at an astounding marginal tax rate of 94%! Hurting the American economy even further was a banking panica loss of confidence in the security of banks, resulting in people withdrawing their money in large numbers. It was notably the largest increase in family income recorded in any year since World War II ended in 1945. Consumers were also benefiting from tax cuts implemented the previous year, with the federal budget deficit continuing to shrink and the GDP growing to 6.5%. Unemployment was also at the lowest it had been in 17 years. Meanwhile, unemployment throughout the country continued to decrease, falling to 20.1%, while the economy grew 8.9%. - Fresh eggs (1 dozen): $0.70 ($6.82 in todays dollars) Some shops priced more expensive items in guineas. - Round steak (1 pound): $0.44 ($7.03 in todays dollars) - Potatoes (1 pound): $0.46 ($0.65 in todays dollars) - White bread (1 pound): $0.79 ($1.35 in todays dollars) - Potatoes (10 pounds): $0.63 ($5.48 in todays dollars) - Round steak (1 pound): $4.88 ($5.45 in todays dollars) - Fresh grocery milk (1 gallon): $2.76 ($3.99 in todays dollars). The economic benefits of the cut would be felt in years to come, with the Dow Jones industrial average nearly doubling between 1962 and 1966, the federal budget deficit shrinking, and GDP increasing. - Fresh grocery milk (1/2 gallon): $0.86 ($3.43 in todays dollars). Businesses began wartime production and a myriad of jobs opened up, including for women who joined the lines at defense plants as welders, electricians, and riveters.
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